A practical reference on nasal formulation: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
Reviewed 2026-01-04. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Stability depends heavily on physical state. Lyophilized powder held dry, cold and dark retains its content over long periods, whereas dissolved peptide begins to change within days at room temperature. The most cited degradation route is oxidation of the methionine residue, which converts the peptide to a sulfoxide form that elutes differently on chromatography. Hydrolysis of amide bonds and adsorption onto container walls contribute smaller losses. Buffers that exclude oxygen from the headspace slow the oxidation pathway, but no single condition prevents all change indefinitely.
Practical handling follows from those properties. Bulk material is best divided into single-use portions soon after receipt, because each thaw exposes the whole container to moisture and temperature cycling. Vials should be allowed to reach room temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the powder. Low-binding plasticware reduces loss of dilute solutions, and sterile filtration is used when a preparation must remain free of microbial growth. Records of batch number, reconstitution date and storage history are what allow a later analytical result to be interpreted meaningfully.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Heptapeptide; ACTH(4-10) analog extended at C-terminus |
| Molecular mass | ~813.9 Da | Free peptide, unmodified |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Soluble in water and saline | Also soluble in common aqueous buffers |
| Storage (solid) | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from moisture and repeated thawing |
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
稳定性主要由水解与氧化两条路径支配。肽键在中性或弱酸性条件下相对稳定，遇到强碱或长时间高温则明显断裂；甲硫氨酸侧链容易被氧化成亚砜，使主峰前移并拉低实际含量。金属离子、光照和反复冻融会进一步促进降解或聚集。冻干粉在低温避光条件下可存放较长时间，配制后的水溶液通常需要冷藏并尽快用完。
纯度评估以反相高效液相色谱为主，通过主峰面积百分比给出粗略结果，再配合电喷雾质谱核对分子量。氨基酸分析可验证组成比例，手性色谱或毛细管电泳用于检查残基构型。常见杂质包括缺失序列的短肽、氧化产物与二聚体。由于多数市售品不附带完整检验报告，独立第三方检测常被用来核实标称值。
Bleecker Banks* (1850s), mayor of Albany, New York; member of New York State Assembly and New York State Senate Galen A. Carter (1850), member of Connecticut Senate Stewart L. Woodford (1854), lieutenant governor of New York and U.S. minister to Spain Jacob Augustus Geissenhainer (1858), U.S. congressman from New Jersey George Lockhart Rives (1868), U.S. assistant secretary of state and chairman of the Columbia trustees Hamilton Fish II (1869), speaker of the New York State Assembly and U.S. congressman Thomas C. E. Ecclesine (1870), member of the New York State Assembly and the New York State Senate Seth Low (1870), mayor of New York City and president of Columbia University Oscar Solomon Straus (1871), first Jewish U.S. cabinet secretary, U.S. secretary of commerce and labor under Theodore Roosevelt, and U.S. ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, first president of the American Jewish Historical Society Robert Anderson Van Wyck (1871), first mayor of New York City to preside over all five boroughs Robert Ray Hamilton (1872), member of New York State Assembly, great-grandson of Alexander Hamilton P. Henry Dugro (1876), U.S. congressman from New York Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.* (1877), governor of New York; U.S. congressman from New York Thomas G. Patten (1879), U.S. congressman from New York Thomas F. Magner (1882), U.S. congressman from New York Thomas Ewing III (1883), 33rd commissioner of the United States Patent and Trademark Office Herbert L. Satterlee (1883), assistant secretary of the Navy 1908–1909, son-in-law of J. P.
== Criticism == The AIOCD (All India organization of Chemists & Druggists) called for a nationwide strike on 14 October 2015 against online sale of drugs and criticized ePharmacies like MedPlusMart.com as illegal and a threat to the interests of around 8.5 lakhs chemists around India. MedPlus defended its online sales policy as being in compliance with the current drug act and as a valuable service to its customers.
In 2016, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a new set of guidelines for the prescription of opioids "for chronic pain outside of active cancer treatment, palliative care, and end-of-life care" and the increase of opioid tapering.
This is important when considering pharmacological interactions: the tissue concentration of a drug with a plasma protein binding rate of less than 90% is not going to significantly increase if that drug is displaced from its union with a protein by another substance. On the other hand, at binding rates of greater than 95% small changes can cause important modifications in a drug's tissue concentration. This will, in turn, increase the risk of the drug having a toxic effect on tissues. Perhaps the most important plasma proteins are the albumins as they are present in relatively high concentrations and they readily bind to other substances. Other important proteins include the glycoproteins, the lipoproteins and to a lesser degree the globulins. It is therefore easy to see that clinical conditions that modify the levels of plasma proteins (for example, hypoalbuminemias brought on by renal dysfunction) may affect the effect and toxicity of a drug that has a binding rate with plasma proteins of above 90%.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Geography == Enewetak Atoll formed atop a seamount. The seamount was formed in the late Cretaceous. This seamount is now about 1,400 meters (4,600 ft) below sea level. It is made of basalt, and its depth is due to a general subsidence of the entire region and not because of erosion. Enewetak has a mean elevation above sea level of 3 meters (9.8 ft).
Methods to diagnose glycogen storage diseases include history and physical examination for associated symptoms, blood tests for associated metabolic disturbances, and genetic testing for suspected mutations. It may also include a non-ischemic forearm test, exercise stress test, or 12-minute walk test (12MWT). Advancements in genetic testing are slowly diminishing the need for biopsy; however, in the event of a VUS and inconclusive exercise tests, a biopsy would then be necessary to confirm diagnosis.
Several approaches have been developed to analyze the location of organelles, genes, proteins, and other components within cells. A gene ontology category, cellular component, has been devised to capture subcellular localization in many biological databases. Microscopic pictures allow for the location of organelles as well as molecules, which may be the source of abnormalities in diseases. Finding the location of proteins allows us to predict what they do. This is called protein function prediction. For instance, if a protein is found in the nucleus it may be involved in gene regulation or splicing. By contrast, if a protein is found in mitochondria, it may be involved in respiration or other metabolic processes. There are well developed protein subcellular localization prediction resources available, including protein subcellular location databases, and prediction tools.
The difference between enzymatically active and inactive homologues has been noted (and in some cases, understood when comparing catalytically active and inactive proteins residing in recognisable families) for some time at the sequence level, owing to the absence of key catalytic residues. Some pseudoenzymes have also been referred to as 'prozymes' when they were analysed in protozoan parasites. The best studied pseudoenzymes reside amongst various key signalling superfamilies of enzymes, such as the proteases, the protein kinases, protein phosphatases and ubiquitin modifying enzymes. The role of pseudoenzymes as "pseudo scaffolds" has also been recognised and pseudoenzymes are now beginning to be more thoroughly studied in terms of their biology and function, in large part because they are also interesting potential targets (or anti-targets) for drug design in the context of intracellular cellular signalling complexes. Kinase Pseudokinase Phosphatome Protein phosphatase "Patrick Eyers - University of Liverpool". Liverpool.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
Passive or "adoptive transfer" of cell-mediated immunity, is conferred by the transfer of "sensitized" or activated T-cells from one individual into another. It is rarely used in humans because it requires histocompatible (matched) donors, which are often difficult to find. In unmatched donors this type of transfer carries severe risks of graft versus host disease. It has, however, been used to treat certain diseases including some types of cancer and immunodeficiency. This type of transfer differs from a bone marrow transplant, in which (undifferentiated) hematopoietic stem cells are transferred.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
RdRps are highly conserved in viruses and are related to telomerase, though the reason for this was an ongoing question as of 2009. The similarity led to speculation that viral RdRps are ancestral to human telomerase. The most famous example of RdRp is in poliovirus. The viral genome is composed of RNA, which enters the cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis. From there, the RNA acts as a template for complementary RNA synthesis. The complementary strand acts as a template for the production of new viral genomes that are packaged and released from the cell ready to infect more host cells. The advantage of this method of replication is that no DNA stage complicates replication. The disadvantage is that no 'back-up' DNA copy is available. Many RdRps associate tightly with membranes making them difficult to study. The best-known RdRps are polioviral 3Dpol, vesicular stomatitis virus L, and hepatitis C virus NS5B protein. Many eukaryotes have RdRps that are involved in RNA interference: these amplify microRNAs and small temporal RNAs and produce double-stranded RNA using small interfering RNAs as primers. These RdRps are used in defense mechanisms and can be appropriated by RNA viruses. Their evolutionary history predates the divergence of major eukaryotic groups.
Xenon-135 (135Xe) is an unstable isotope of xenon with a half-life of 9.14 hours, decaying to long-lived caesium-135. 135Xe is a fission product and it is the most powerful known neutron-absorbing nuclear poison (2 million barns; up to 3 million barns under reactor conditions), with a significant effect on nuclear reactor operation. The yield of xenon-135 from fission is about 6.6% (uranium) or 7.4% (plutonium), the great majority from iodine-135. It is normal for fission products to be formed in such a chain of decays.
Inhalable insulin is a powdered form of insulin, delivered with an inhaler into the lungs where it is absorbed. In general, inhaled insulins have been more rapidly absorbed than subcutaneous injected insulin, with faster peak concentration in serum and more rapid metabolism. Exubera, developed by Inhale Therapeutics (later named Nektar Therapeutics), became the first inhaled insulin product to be marketed, in 2006 by Pfizer, but poor sales led Pfizer to withdraw it in 2007. Afrezza, a monomeric inhaled, ultra rapid-acting insulin developed by Mannkind, was approved by the FDA in 2014 and is the only inhaled insulin commercialized at the moment.
Al-Houthi has said through his fascicles: "Arab countries and all Islamic countries will not be safe from Jews except through their eradication and the elimination of their entity." A New York Times journalist reported being asked why they were speaking to a "dirty Jew" and that the Jews in the village were unable to communicate with their neighbors.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.
Its sequence corresponds to the 4-10 region of corticotropin extended by three residues. This fragment lacks the region responsible for adrenal steroid release, so it is explored for neural rather than hormonal effects. The relationship explains the compound's classification among ACTH-derived peptides.
It holds approval in Russia for several neurological indications as a nasal spray or drop formulation. Regulatory agencies in the United States and the European Union have not approved it. Products sold elsewhere are generally labeled for research use only.
Suppliers normally quote a percentage of total chromatographic peak area, most often from reversed-phase HPLC. That figure says nothing about what the remaining percentage contains, and it depends on the detection wavelength used. A mass spectrometry result is a separate and stronger check on identity.