Everything below concerns synthetic heptapeptide. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2025-08-17. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
常规纯度与身份确认依赖反相高效液相色谱，并辅以质谱测定分子量。氨基酸组成分析可用于验证序列构成，肽图分析则能进一步定位修饰或降解产物。杂质谱通常关注缺失序列肽、截短片段和氧化产物。不同方法的检出限并不相同，因此各实验室报告的纯度数值不宜直接横向比较。
多数实验室与市售的 Semax 以冻干粉形式提供。冻干粉通常建议保存在 -20 °C 或更低温度下，同时避免光照与反复升温。短期运输有时采用冷藏条件，但长期保存仍以冷冻为主。分包操作应尽量减少开盖次数，以降低吸湿和微生物污染的风险。开封后若未一次用完，建议在干燥环境中密封并尽快放回低温储存。
Laboratory descriptions of the material are consistent across suppliers. It appears as a white to off-white lyophilized powder that dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. Aqueous solutions are clear and colorless at low concentrations. Because the peptide contains methionine, oxidation at the sulfur atom is a recognized degradation pathway, and handling notes usually call for protected, desiccated storage. Reported purity for research-grade lots is generally above 95 percent as measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
The compound is registered in Russia as a pharmaceutical product, most commonly formulated as a nasal solution, and has been used in that setting since the 1990s. Outside that jurisdiction it is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Regulatory status therefore differs sharply between countries, and material sold internationally may not correspond to the Russian pharmaceutical formulation. Documentation with commercial samples is typically limited to a certificate of analysis covering purity and identity, not clinical status or local legal classification.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It corresponds to the ACTH(4-7) fragment extended at the C-terminus by a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide, an addition intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and the molecular mass is approximately 814 daltons. In the literature it is often described as an ACTH(4-10) analog, although that label reflects a naming convention as much as a precise structural relationship. The compound was developed in Russia and remains most closely associated with that research tradition.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 常见于冻干制剂 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 在极性溶剂中一般也可溶 |
| 建议储存温度 | -20 °C | 冻干粉，避光密封 |
| 常见分析手段 | 反相高效液相色谱 | 常与质谱联用 |
| 主要降解路径 | 水解与氧化 | 溶液状态更显著 |
从分子层面看，Semax 是线性七肽，没有二硫键、糖基或脂链修饰，N 端为游离氨基，C 端为游离羧基。分子含组氨酸与谷氨酸侧链，因此在水和甲醇等极性溶剂中溶解良好，在非极性溶剂中溶解有限。计算分子量约为 814 Da，与其质子化离子的质荷比吻合，可用于质谱确认。
稳定性主要由水解与氧化两条路径支配。肽键在中性或弱酸性条件下相对稳定，遇到强碱或长时间高温则明显断裂；甲硫氨酸侧链容易被氧化成亚砜，使主峰前移并拉低实际含量。金属离子、光照和反复冻融会进一步促进降解或聚集。冻干粉在低温避光条件下可存放较长时间，配制后的水溶液通常需要冷藏并尽快用完。
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Claims about enhanced focus, memory, or mood in healthy people rest mostly on anecdotal reports and community discussion rather than on controlled data. It remains unclear whether any cognitive benefit observed in patients recovering from brain injury would extend to uninjured users. Dose-response relationships, long-term safety, and interactions with other drugs are not well characterized in the peer-reviewed literature. Questions about optimal route of administration and treatment duration likewise remain open.
Semax binds to melanocortin receptors and is thought to influence neuronal survival and plasticity rather than to act through the adrenal axis. Laboratory work has shown increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in treated tissue. Changes in c-Fos, a marker of neuronal activation, have also been reported. Because the peptide is rapidly degraded by peptidases, its effects are generally attributed to downstream signaling cascades rather than to sustained receptor occupancy.
Published studies are dominated by animal models of stroke, ischemia, and cognitive impairment, with a smaller number of human trials conducted in Russia. Many of the human reports are small, single-center, and published in Russian-language journals, which limits independent scrutiny. Outcome measures vary between studies and often rely on clinician-rated scales rather than objective biomarkers. Systematic reviews have noted the methodological weaknesses and called for larger, preregistered trials before firm conclusions can be drawn.
(See Endogenous opiate precursor theory) After a preliminary 1998 study of three children with autism treated with secretin infusion reported improved GI function and dramatic improvement in behavior, many parents sought secretin treatment and a black market for the hormone developed quickly. Later studies found secretin clearly ineffective in treating autism.
The War Office has referred to several British government organisations throughout history, all relating to the army. It was a department of the British Government responsible for the administration of the British Army between 1857 and 1964, at which point its functions were transferred to the new Ministry of Defence (MoD). It was equivalent to the Admiralty at that time, which was responsible for the Royal Navy (RN), and (much later) the Air Ministry, which oversaw the Royal Air Force (RAF). The name 'Old War Office' is also given to the former home of the department, located at the junction of Horse Guards Avenue and Whitehall in central London. The landmark building was sold on 1 March 2016 by HM Government for more than £350 million, on a 250-year lease, for conversion into a luxury hotel and residential apartments. Prior to 1855, 'War Office' signified the office of the Secretary at War. In the 17th and 18th centuries, a number of independent offices and individuals were responsible for various aspects of Army administration. The most important were the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, the Secretary at War, and the twin Secretaries of State; most of whose military responsibilities were passed to a new Secretary of State for War in 1794.
In proline degradation, the enzyme proline dehydrogenase produces P5C from proline, and the enzyme 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase converts GSA to glutamate. In many prokaryotes, proline dehydrogenase and P5C dehydrogenase form a bifunctional enzyme that prevents the release of P5C during proline degradation. A reciprocal regulation of delta 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) and proline dehydrogenase genes controls proline levels during and after osmotic stress in plants proportional to the level of proline. This allows an optimum level of proline to be produced from reduced nitrogen to control osmotic stress.
=== Translation termination === In 1973 Dalgarno and Shine proposed that in eukaryotes, the 3'-end of the small 18S rRNA may play a role in the termination of protein synthesis by complementary base pairing with termination codons. This came from their observation that the 3' terminal sequences of 18S rRNA from Drosophila melanogaster, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and rabbit cells are identical: GAUCAUUA -3'OH. The conservation of this sequence between such distantly related eukaryotes implied that this nucleotide tract played an important role in the cell. Since this conserved sequence contained the complement of each of the three eukaryotic termination codons (UAA, UAG and UGA) it was proposed to have a role in the termination of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. A similar role for the 3' end of 16S rRNA in recognising termination triplets in E.coli was proposed in 1974 by Shine and Dalgarno on the basis of complementarity relationships between the 3'-terminal UUA-OH in 16S rRNA and E.coli termination codons. In F1 phage, a class of viruses that infect bacteria, the sequence coding for the first few amino acids often contains termination triplets in the two unused reading frames. In a commentary on this paper, it was noted that complementary base pairing with the 3'-terminus of 16S rRNA might serve to abort peptide bond formation after out-of-phase initiation.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Execution === Pentobarbital has been used or considered as a substitute for the barbiturate sodium thiopental used for capital punishment by lethal injection in the United States when that drug became unavailable. In 2011 the U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental stopped production, and importation of the drug proved impossible. Pentobarbital was used in a U.S. execution for the first time in December 2010 in Oklahoma, as part of a three-drug protocol. In March 2011 pentobarbital was used for the first time as the sole drug in a U.S. execution, in Ohio. Since then several states as well as the federal government have used pentobarbital for lethal injections; some use three-drug protocols and others use pentobarbital alone. Texas began using the single-drug pentobarbital protocol for executing death-row inmates on 18 July 2012, because of a shortage of pancuronium bromide, a muscle paralytic previously used as one component of a three-drug cocktail. In October 2013, Missouri changed its protocol to allow for pentobarbital from a compounding pharmacy to be used in a lethal dose for executions. It was first used in November 2013. According to a December 2020 ProPublica article, by 2017 the federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), in discussion with then Attorney General Jeff Sessions, had begun to search for suppliers of pentobarbital to be used in lethal injections.
== Etymology and synonym == The word thalassemia () derives from the Greek thalassa (θάλασσα), 'sea', and Neo-Latin -emia (from the Greek compound stem -aimia [-αιμία], from haima [αἷμα], 'blood'). It was coined because the condition called "Mediterranean anemia" was first described in people of Mediterranean ethnicities. "Mediterranean anemia" was renamed thalassemia major once the genetics were better understood. The word thalassemia was first used in 1932.
== Chemistry == Bicalutamide is a racemic mixture consisting of equal proportions of enantiomers (R)-bicalutamide (dextrorotatory) and (S)-bicalutamide (levorotatory). Its systematic name (IUPAC) is (RS)-N-[4-cyano-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-3-[(4-fluorophenyl)sulfonyl]-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropanamide. The compound has a chemical formula of C18H14F4N2O4S, a molecular weight of 430.373 g/mol, and is a fine white to off-white powder. The acid dissociation constant (pKa') of bicalutamide is approximately 12. It is a highly lipophilic compound (log P = 2.92). At 37 °C (98.6 °F), or normal human body temperature, bicalutamide is practically insoluble in water (4.6 mg/L), acid (4.6 mg/L at pH 1), and alkali (3.7 mg/L at pH 8). In organic solvents, it is slightly soluble in chloroform and absolute ethanol, sparingly soluble in methanol, and freely soluble in acetone and tetrahydrofuran. Bicalutamide is a synthetic and nonsteroidal compound which was derived from flutamide. It is a bicyclic compound (has two rings) and can be classified as and has variously been referred to as an anilide (N-phenylamide) or aniline, a diarylpropionamide, and a toluidide. The crystalline structure of bicalutamide is represented by a wide variety of conformation-dependent solid forms, including polymorphs, crystal solvates, co-crystals, and others. The formation and stabilization of these solid forms are largely governed by the solvent environment, which influences the conformational preferences of bicalutamide molecules as well as the intermolecular interactions established during crystallization.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The medals were presented to Cotchin and Mitchell in a small ceremony in Melbourne on 13 December 2016. Watson's physical medal was handed back to the AFL CEO Gillon McLachlan in early 2017, with no plans in place to re-present or display it as of February 2017.
During his 1937–1938 journey to India, Jung developed an interest in Indian philosophy and religious traditions, particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, and Advaita Vedanta, which influenced his later reflections on symbolism, the unconscious, and the concept of the Self. Jung compared Indian spiritual traditions to modern Western culture, which he described as more focused on logic and material things. He wrote that Eastern traditions preserved psychological and symbolic modes of understanding that the West had partly lost, and he expressed admiration for the philosophical depth of Indian metaphysics, yoga, and contemplative practices. At the same time, he maintained that these traditions emerged from a different cultural and psychological context, and he cautioned that their direct adoption by Westerners could be problematic without any prior psychological development through which he termed as individuation. During this visit, he declined an opportunity to meet the Advaita Vedanta sage Ramana Maharshi, for what he later explained was that he preferred to pursue insight through his own psychological work rather than through the authority of spiritual teachers. Jung discussed these thoughts in his several later writings, including Psychology and the East, The Holy Men of India, and Memories, Dreams, Reflections, where he argued that dialogue between Eastern spirituality and Western psychology could be fruitful, but that the two traditions reflected different historical paths toward understanding the human psyche and spiritual experience.
In addition to chlorophylls, another group of yellow–orange pigments called carotenoids are also found in the photosystems. There are about thirty photosynthetic carotenoids. They help transfer and dissipate excess energy, and their bright colors sometimes override the chlorophyll green, like during the fall, when the leaves of some land plants change color. β-carotene is a bright red-orange carotenoid found in nearly all chloroplasts, like chlorophyll a. Xanthophylls, especially the orange-red zeaxanthin, are also common. Many other forms of carotenoids exist that are only found in certain groups of chloroplasts.
=== Duchies in the Danish realm === Between 500 and 1200, Schleswig was an integral part of Denmark, but during the 12th century, Duke Abel of Schlewig came into conflict with his brother King Eric IV. Abel managed to gain autonomy from his brother, making Schleswig an autonomous duchy. Later, Abel had Eric assassinated and seized the throne. Despite this, Schleswig remained an autonomous duchy within the Kingdom, setting the stage for future conflicts. Beginning in 1460, both the Duchy of Schleswig and Duchy of Holstein were ruled together by the Danish king, who acted as the duke of both regions. Holstein, being a duchy within the Holy Roman Empire, created a situation where the Danish king was sovereign of Denmark but also a duke within the Holy Roman Empire. Both were ruled for several centuries by the kings of Denmark. In 1721, all of Schleswig was united into a single duchy under the king of Denmark, and the great powers of Europe confirmed in an international treaty that all future kings of Denmark should automatically become dukes of Schleswig: consequently, Schleswig would always follow the order of succession that applied in the Kingdom of Denmark. After the Protestant Reformation, German was established as the language of commerce, administration, education, and clergy in Schleswig despite the population being ethnically Danish. This was because Schleswig was managed by the German Chancellery in Kiel, which was later renamed the Schleswig-Holstein Chancellery in 1806.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
一般不建议常温长期保存。多数说明指向 -20 °C 冷冻避光。常温运输通常被视为短期可接受，但会加快降解风险。
公开资料对此没有统一答案。普遍建议现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用完。含甲硫氨酸的序列更易氧化，放置时间越长风险越高。
反相高效液相色谱是最常用的手段，配合质谱确认分子量。氨基酸组成分析和肽图分析可补充序列层面的验证。
It is registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia, where it is typically supplied as a nasal solution. In most other countries it is not an approved drug and is traded as a research chemical instead. Approval status depends entirely on the jurisdiction involved.