nasal drops is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Last reviewed on 2026-02-12. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Published research covers ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive impairment, optic nerve conditions and attention-related measures. Much of the human evidence comes from small trials conducted in one country, which limits how far the results generalize. Animal models supply the larger share of the data, and effects seen in rodents do not transfer automatically to people. Reviews have noted that methodological reporting is often incomplete, making it difficult to pool results or compare treatment schedules across studies.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research models | Rodent studies | Largest share of published data |
| Reported markers | BDNF and NGF expression | Measured mainly in animal tissue |
| Common administration | Intranasal | Matches the registered formulation |
| Blood residence time | Minutes | Rapid enzymatic degradation |
| Evidence quality | Small trials, limited replication | Noted repeatedly in reviews |
纯度评估以反相高效液相色谱为主，通过主峰面积百分比给出粗略结果，再配合电喷雾质谱核对分子量。氨基酸分析可验证组成比例，手性色谱或毛细管电泳用于检查残基构型。常见杂质包括缺失序列的短肽、氧化产物与二聚体。由于多数市售品不附带完整检验报告，独立第三方检测常被用来核实标称值。
从分子层面看，Semax 是线性七肽，没有二硫键、糖基或脂链修饰，N 端为游离氨基，C 端为游离羧基。分子含组氨酸与谷氨酸侧链，因此在水和甲醇等极性溶剂中溶解良好，在非极性溶剂中溶解有限。计算分子量约为 814 Da，与其质子化离子的质荷比吻合，可用于质谱确认。
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
Practical handling follows from those properties. Bulk material is best divided into single-use portions soon after receipt, because each thaw exposes the whole container to moisture and temperature cycling. Vials should be allowed to reach room temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the powder. Low-binding plasticware reduces loss of dilute solutions, and sterile filtration is used when a preparation must remain free of microbial growth. Records of batch number, reconstitution date and storage history are what allow a later analytical result to be interpreted meaningfully.
Identity and purity of Semax are established mainly by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The chromatographic trace gives a purity estimate as a percentage of total peak area, while electrospray or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization confirms the molecular mass against the calculated value. Amino acid analysis and sequence-specific fragmentation provide further confirmation when a supplier's chain of custody is unclear. Vendors frequently quote a purity figure without stating the detection wavelength or the integration method, which limits how far one number can be compared with another.
Stability depends heavily on physical state. Lyophilized powder held dry, cold and dark retains its content over long periods, whereas dissolved peptide begins to change within days at room temperature. The most cited degradation route is oxidation of the methionine residue, which converts the peptide to a sulfoxide form that elutes differently on chromatography. Hydrolysis of amide bonds and adsorption onto container walls contribute smaller losses. Buffers that exclude oxygen from the headspace slow the oxidation pathway, but no single condition prevents all change indefinitely.
=== Republic of Egypt (from 1953) === King Hussein of Jordan, 1955 Marshal Josip Broz Tito, President of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, 1956 Prof. Amintore Fanfani, Prime Minister and ad-interim Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Italy, 1959 Yuri Gagarin, Soviet cosmonaut, 1961 Taha Hussein, Egyptian writer, 1965 Umm kulthum, Egyptian singer and actress, 1965 Mohammed Abdel Wahab, Egyptian singer and composer, 1965 President Jimmy Carter, President of the United States, 1979 Emperor Akihito of Japan Emperor Amha Selassie of Ethiopia Mohammed Burhanuddin, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohra, 1978 King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand Mohamed ElBaradei, former director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Queen Elizabeth II, 1975 Birendra Bir Bikram shah Dev, King of Nepal, 1974 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, 1975 Hassaballah El Kafrawy, Egyptian former Minister of Housing Pengiran Anak Haji Mohamed Yusof, prince consort and cheteria of Brunei, 1984 Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian writer, 1988 King Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud of Saudi Arabia, 1989 Pierre Gemayel, founder of the Lebanese Phalange Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa of Bahrain, 2016 King Idris of Libya (Grand Cordon) Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu, Turkish academic, diplomat and former Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Émile Lahoud, President of Lebanon, 2000 Makarios III, former president of Cyprus Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa Adly Mansour, former Chief Justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court and former acting President of Egypt King Mohammed VI of Morocco Muhammad Naguib, First President of Egypt Nursultan Nazarbayev, President of Kazakhstan Antonín Novotný, President of Czechoslovakia Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1976 Ziaur Rahman, President of Bangladesh Heinrich Rau, East German politician (Grand Cordon), 1961 King Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud of Saudi Arabia, 1954 King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia William E. Simon, U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Suharto, President of Indonesia Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, former chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces of Egypt, 2012 Walter Ulbricht, President of East Germany, 1965 George Vasiliou, former president of Cyprus Sir Magdi Habib Yacoub, Egyptian professor of Cardiothoracic Surgery Professor Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian scientist Katerina Sakellaropoulou, President of Greece, 2020 Salva Kiir Mayardit, President of South Sudan, 2020 Haitham bin Tariq, Sultan of Oman, 2023 Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India, 2023 Mufaddal Saifuddin, 53rd Da'i al-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohras, 2023 Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait, 2024 King Frederik X, King of Denmark, 2024 King Felipe VI, King of Spain, 2025 Donald Trump, President of the United States, 2025
All K vitamins are similar in structure: they share a "quinone" ring, but differ in the length and degree of saturation of the carbon tail and the number of repeating isoprene units in the "side chain". The number of repeating units is indicated in the name of the particular menaquinone (e.g., MK-4 means that four isoprene units are repeated in the carbon tail). The chain length influences lipid solubility and thus transport to different target tissues.
=== Relationship with Franz Ferdinand === Archduke Franz Ferdinand became heir presumptive (Thronfolger) to the throne of Austria-Hungary in 1896 after the deaths of his cousin Rudolf (in 1889) and his father Karl Ludwig (in 1896). The relationship between him and Franz Joseph had always been a fairly contentious one, which was further exacerbated when Franz Ferdinand announced his desire to marry Countess Sophie Chotek. The emperor would not even consider giving his blessing to the union, as Sophie was merely of noble rank, not dynastic rank. Although the emperor received letters from members of the imperial family throughout the fall and winter of 1899 beseeching him to relent, Franz Joseph stood his ground. He finally gave his consent in 1900. However, the marriage was to be morganatic, and any children of the marriage would be ineligible to succeed to the throne. The couple were married on 1 July 1900 at Reichstadt. The emperor did not attend the wedding, nor did any of the archdukes. After that, the two men disliked and mistrusted each other. His interactions with Franz Ferdinand were strained; the emperor's personal attendant recollected in his memoirs that: "thunder and lightning always raged when they had their discussions." Following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie in 1914, Franz Joseph's daughter, Marie Valerie, noted that her father expressed his greater confidence in the new heir presumptive, his grandnephew Archduke Charles. The emperor admitted to his daughter, regarding the assassination: "For me, it is a relief from a great worry."
=== Hormonal disorders === A meta-analysis found levels of increased circulating resistin in women with polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome (PMOS, formerly polycystic ovary syndrome). This effect was independent of obesity, showing that adipokines like resistin may contribute to the pathology of PMOS.
=== Pharmacodynamics === Finasteride is a 5α-reductase inhibitor. It is specifically a selective inhibitor of the type II and III isoforms of the enzyme. By inhibiting these two isozymes of 5α-reductase, finasteride reduces the formation of the potent androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT) from its precursor testosterone in certain tissues in the body such as the prostate gland, skin, and hair follicles. As such, finasteride is a type of antiandrogen, or more specifically, an androgen synthesis inhibitor. However, some authors do not define finasteride as an "antiandrogen," a term which can refer more specifically to antagonists of the androgen receptor. Finasteride results in a decrease of circulating DHT levels by about 65–70% with an oral dosage of 5 mg/day and of DHT levels in the prostate gland by up to 80–90% with an oral dosage of 1 or 5 mg/day. In parallel, circulating levels of testosterone increase by approximately 10%, while local concentrations of testosterone in the prostate gland increase by about 7-fold and local testosterone levels in hair follicles increase by around 27–53%. An oral dosage of finasteride of only 0.2 mg/day has been found to achieve near-maximal suppression of DHT levels (68.6% for 0.2 mg/day relative to 72.2% for 5 mg/day). Finasteride does not completely suppress DHT production because it lacks significant inhibitory effects on the 5α-reductase type I isoenzyme, with more than 100-fold less inhibitory potency for type I as compared to type II (IC50Tooltip Half-maximal inhibitory concentration = 313 nM and 11 nM, respectively).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Disadvantages === While molecular farming is one application of genetic engineering, there are concerns that are unique to it. In the case of genetically modified (GM) foods, concerns focus on the safety of the food for human consumption. In response, it has been argued that the genes that enhance a crop in some way, such as drought resistance or pesticide resistance, are not believed to affect the food itself. Other GM foods in development, such as fruits designed to ripen faster or grow larger, are believed not to affect humans any differently from non-GM varieties. In contrast, molecular farming is not intended for crops destined for the food chain. It produces plants that contain physiologically active compounds that accumulate in the plant's tissues. Considerable attention is focused, therefore, on the restraint and caution necessary to protect both consumer health and environmental biodiversity. The fact that the plants are used to produce drugs alarms activists. They worry that once production begins, the altered plants might find their way into the food supply or cross-pollinate with conventional, non-GM crops. These concerns have historical validation from the ProdiGene incident, and from the StarLink incident, in which GMO corn accidentally ended up in commercial food products. Activists also are concerned about the power of business. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, in a recent report, says that U.S. demand alone for biotech pharmaceuticals is expanding at 13 percent annually and to reach a market value of $28.6 billion in 2004.
where [A] = [H3PO4] + [H2PO−4] + [HPO2−4] + [PO3−4] is the total acid concentration. Thus phosphoric acid is more efficient than a monoacid since at the final almost neutral pH, the second dissociated state concentration [HPO2−4] is not negligible (see phosphoric acid).
(b) Nasal dorsum and lateral nasal wall defect The size of the nasal defect (wound) occurred, in either the dorsum or the lateral wall, or both, determines the reconstructive skin-flap technique applicable to the corresponding aesthetic nasal subunits.
=== Interoperability === The DASH7 Alliance is currently working on a certification program that functionally tests the DASH7 devices. The certification is composed of a set of test scenarios covering transactions in different stack configurations (channel, QoS, security). The physical wireless interface is not covered by the certification and will have to comply to local radio regulations.
Criminals have been known to dispose of dead bodies by hiding the bodies in trash or landfills, feeding them to animals (such as pigs or rats), industrial processes (e.g., chemical baths), injection into the legitimate body disposal system (such as morgues, funeral homes, cemeteries, crematoriums, funeral pyres or cadaver donations), covert killings at health care facilities, disguising as animal flesh (such as food waste or restaurant food), creating false evidence of the circumstances of death and letting investigators dispose of the body, obscuring the victim's identity, or abandoning the body in a remote area where it can degrade significantly. Animal activity, such as consumption by scavengers, can contaminate the crime scene or destroy evidence before being discovered. However, there are also many instances of gangsters putting the bodies of their victims on display as a form of psychological warfare against their enemies.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Dietary sources === Arginine is classified as a semiessential or conditionally essential amino acid, depending on the developmental stage and health status of the individual. Preterm infants are unable to synthesize arginine internally, making the amino acid nutritionally essential for them. Most healthy people do not need to supplement with arginine because it is a component of all protein-containing foods and can be synthesized in the body from glutamine via citrulline. Additional, dietary arginine is necessary for otherwise healthy individuals temporarily under physiological stress, for example during recovery from burns, injury or sepsis, or if either of the major sites of arginine biosynthesis, the small intestine and kidneys, have reduced function, because the small bowel does the first step of the synthesizing process and the kidneys do the second. Arginine is an essential amino acid for birds, as they do not have a urea cycle. For some carnivores, for example cats, dogs and ferrets, arginine is essential, because after a meal, their highly efficient protein catabolism produces large quantities of ammonia which need to be processed through the urea cycle, and if not enough arginine is present, the resulting ammonia toxicity can be lethal. This is not a problem in practice, because meat contains sufficient arginine to avoid this situation. Animal sources of arginine include meat, dairy products, and eggs, and plant sources include seeds of all types, for example grains, beans, and nuts.
=== Activators === 1-Aminoanthracene and propofol - activate SIRT2 activity on some substrates but inhibit it on others Nicotinamide riboside - activates SIRT2, but non selective Metformin - activates SIRT2 but has several other mechanisms of action as well SRT1720 - primarily a SIRT1 activator, but also weakly activates SIRT2 Hexapeptide-12 (VGVAPG) - upregulates SIRT2 gene expression through an indirect pathway
In malignant-type smallpox (also called flat smallpox) the lesions remained almost flush with the skin at the time when raised vesicles would have formed in the ordinary type. It is unknown why some people developed this type. Historically, it accounted for 5–10% of cases, and most (72%) were children. Malignant smallpox was accompanied by a severe prodromal phase that lasted 3–4 days, prolonged high fever, and severe symptoms of viremia. The prodromal symptoms continued even after the onset of the rash. The rash on the mucous membranes (enanthem) was extensive. Skin lesions matured slowly, were typically confluent or semi-confluent, and by the seventh or eighth day, they were flat and appeared to be buried in the skin. Unlike ordinary-type smallpox, the vesicles contained little fluid, were soft and velvety to the touch, and may have contained hemorrhages. Malignant smallpox was nearly always fatal and death usually occurred between the 8th and 12th day of illness. Often, a day or two before death, the lesions turned ashen gray, which, along with abdominal distension, was a bad prognostic sign. This form is thought to be caused by deficient cell-mediated immunity to smallpox. If the person recovered, the lesions gradually faded and did not form scars or scabs.
In humans, glucose is metabolized by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway. Glycolysis is used by all living organisms, with small variations, and all organisms generate energy from the breakdown of monosaccharides. In the further course of the metabolism, it can be completely degraded via oxidative decarboxylation, the citric acid cycle (synonym Krebs cycle) and the respiratory chain to water and carbon dioxide. If there is not enough oxygen available for this, the glucose degradation in animals occurs anaerobic to lactate via lactic acid fermentation and releases much less energy. Muscular lactate enters the liver through the bloodstream in mammals, where gluconeogenesis occurs (Cori cycle). With a high supply of glucose, the metabolite acetyl-CoA from the Krebs cycle can also be used for fatty acid synthesis. Glucose is also used to replenish the body's glycogen stores, which are mainly found in liver and skeletal muscle. These processes are hormonally regulated. In other living organisms, other forms of fermentation can occur. The bacterium Escherichia coli can grow on nutrient media containing glucose as the sole carbon source. In some bacteria and, in modified form, also in archaea, glucose is degraded via the Entner-Doudoroff pathway. With glucose, a mechanism for gene regulation was discovered in E. coli, the catabolite repression (formerly known as glucose effect). Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is by either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, or fermentation.
Baseball steak is a center cut of beef taken from the top sirloin cap steak. Baseball steaks differ from sirloin steaks in that the bone and the tenderloin and bottom round muscles have been removed; and the cut is taken from gluteus medius: baseball steak is essentially a center cut top sirloin steak. This cut is very lean, and is considered very flavorful. The IMPS/NAMP codes for this subprimal cut are 181A and 184: 181A is obtained from 181 after removing the bottom sirloin and the butt tender (the part of the tenderloin which is in the sirloin); 184 is obtained from 182 after removing the bottom sirloin. The foodservice cuts from 184 are 184A through 184F, its portion cut is 1184 and, the "subportion" cuts from 1184 are 1184A through 1184F. 181A is not further divided into foodservice cuts. Baseball steaks are made primarily from cut 184F. In Australia, this cut is called D-rump in the Handbook of Australian Meat and assigned code 2100.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The main proposal is modulation of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, supported largely by animal experiments. Receptor-level targets have not been firmly established. Most reviews describe the mechanism as only partially characterized.
The compound is registered as a medicine in Russia, so clinical work has concentrated there. Trials elsewhere are few and generally small. This geographic concentration is a recognized limitation in evidence reviews.
Some fraction may reach the central nervous system through olfactory pathways, and this is often cited as the rationale for the nasal route. The size of that fraction in humans is not well quantified. Blood concentrations after nasal dosing are low, which complicates measurement.
It is described as a synthetic analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Its sequence differs from that fragment and includes two proline residues, which influence stability and behaviour in solution.