The short version of intranasal route fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2025-12-22. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Proposed mechanisms center on neurotrophic signaling rather than on classical melanocortin receptor activation. Rodent experiments have reported shifts in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor after administration, together with changes in the associated receptor systems. Several authors argue that the peptide acts largely through its degradation products and their interaction with peptidergic pathways, but this remains a hypothesis rather than a settled finding. No single molecular target has been identified in a way that the field broadly accepts.
Published research covers ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive impairment, optic nerve conditions and attention-related measures. Much of the human evidence comes from small trials conducted in one country, which limits how far the results generalize. Animal models supply the larger share of the data, and effects seen in rodents do not transfer automatically to people. Reviews have noted that methodological reporting is often incomplete, making it difficult to pool results or compare treatment schedules across studies.
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research models | Rodent studies | Largest share of published data |
| Reported markers | BDNF and NGF expression | Measured mainly in animal tissue |
| Common administration | Intranasal | Matches the registered formulation |
| Blood residence time | Minutes | Rapid enzymatic degradation |
| Evidence quality | Small trials, limited replication | Noted repeatedly in reviews |
Verification of a supplied batch generally combines a certificate of analysis with independent testing, because certificates are self-reported documents. A typical package includes a chromatographic trace, a mass spectrum, and a stated water or counter-ion content. Batch-to-batch consistency matters more than a single purity figure when results are compared across experiments. No single mandatory standard governs research-grade peptide release, so laboratories are expected to define their own acceptance criteria. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is a frequently overlooked counter-ion.
Lyophilized material is chemically stable for extended periods when kept dry, cold, and protected from light. The powder is hygroscopic, so vials should be warmed to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation on the contents. Once dissolved, the peptide is far less stable because peptide bonds are susceptible to hydrolysis and the methionine residue can oxidize. Solutions are typically aliquoted and held at 2-8 °C for short intervals or frozen for longer ones, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided.
Routine characterization relies on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography to establish purity and on mass spectrometry to confirm molecular identity. Electrospray ionization and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization are both used for mass verification. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping can detect sequence errors. Common impurities include truncated sequences, methionine sulfoxide formed by oxidation, and deamidated products. Chromatograms are usually recorded near 214 nm, where the peptide backbone absorbs, and purity is reported as the percentage area of the principal peak.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Published research has focused mainly on neurological and cognitive endpoints in animal models, with proposed mechanisms involving brain-derived neurotrophic factor and related signalling pathways. A substantial share of the human data originates from a limited number of research groups, and independent replication in other countries remains sparse. Regulatory status reflects that distribution: the peptide is registered as a medicine in Russia and appears in some neighbouring markets, while elsewhere it is handled as a research chemical without approved therapeutic labelling. Questions about dose-response relationships, long-term effects, and comparability across studies are still open.
Lyophilised powder is normally kept at -20 °C in a desiccated container, with some suppliers recommending -80 °C for long-term archival storage. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are the most common cause of avoidable loss, so aliquoting before freezing reduces variability between working sessions. Dissolved peptide is far less stable than the dry solid and is usually prepared fresh or held briefly at 4 °C. Aqueous solutions support both hydrolysis of the backbone and oxidation of the N-terminal methionine, and these two routes dominate degradation under ordinary laboratory conditions.
Identity and purity are confirmed with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, typically monitored at 214 nanometres where the peptide bond absorbs. Mass spectrometry, either electrospray or MALDI-TOF, verifies molecular mass against the theoretical value and detects truncation or adduct formation. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional confirmation when required. The most frequently reported impurities are deletion sequences from incomplete coupling, methionine sulfoxide from oxidation, and dimeric species formed through non-covalent aggregation. Impurity profiles depend strongly on the synthesis and purification route chosen by the producer.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Pultronics inc. is a Canadian fabless semiconductor and software design house founded in 1994. It develops stand-alone electronic circuits, RFID tags (and readers), sensors and monitoring services. In addition it offers design services in several realms, ranging from microelectronics to custom IP services.
== Society and culture == The altered appearance caused by vitiligo can affect a person's emotional and psychological well-being. It may lead to employment difficulties, particularly if vitiligo develops on visible areas of the body, such as the face, hands, or arms. Participating in a vitiligo support group may improve social coping skills and emotional resilience.
=== Cultivation === White-barked birches in particular are cultivated as ornamental trees, largely for their appearance in winter. The Himalayan birch, Betula utilis, especially the variety or subspecies jacquemontii, is among the most widely planted for this purpose. It has been cultivated since the 1870s, and many cultivars are available, including 'Doorenbos', 'Grayswood Ghost' and 'Silver Shadow'; 'Knightshayes' has a slightly weeping habit. Other species with ornamental white bark include Betula ermanii, Betula papyrifera, Betula pendula and Betula raddeana.
=== Brain-powered remote control for paralyzed people === The brain–computer interface system of Professor Jonathan Wolpaw aims to facilitate the communication of patients with locked-in syndrome. It enables patients to move a cursor on a computer screen, dictate a text or control a robotic arm.
That the centrifugal force and the frictional force between the wall of the rotating flask and the liquid sample result in the formation of a thin film of warm solvent being spread over a large surface. The forces created by the rotation suppress bumping. The combination of these characteristics and the conveniences built into modern rotary evaporators allow for quick, gentle evaporation of solvents from most samples, even in the hands of relatively inexperienced users. Solvent remaining after rotary evaporation can be removed by exposing the sample to even deeper vacuum, on a more tightly sealed vacuum system, at ambient or higher temperature (e.g., on a Schlenk line or in a vacuum oven). A key disadvantage in rotary evaporations, besides its single sample nature, is the potential of some sample types to bump, e.g. ethanol and water, which can result in loss of a portion of the material intended to be retained. Even professionals experience periodic mishaps during evaporation, especially bumping, though experienced users become aware of the propensity of some mixtures to bump or foam, and apply precautions that help to avoid most such events. In particular, bumping can often be prevented by taking homogeneous phases into the evaporation, by carefully regulating the strength of the vacuum (or the bath temperature) to provide for an even rate of evaporation, or, in rare cases, through use of added agents such as boiling chips (to make the nucleation step of evaporation more uniform).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
NAD(P)H dehydrogenase [quinone] 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the NQO1 gene. This protein-coding gene is a member of the NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone) family and encodes a 2-electron reductase (enzyme). This FAD-binding protein forms homodimers and performs two-electron reduction of quinones to hydroquinones and of other redox dyes. It has a preference for short-chain acceptor quinones, such as ubiquinone, benzoquinone, juglone and duroquinone. This gene has an important paralog NQO2. This protein is located in the cytosol. NQO1 enzyme expression can be induced by dioxin and inhibited by dicoumarol.
=== Calcium and calmodulin dependence === The sensitivity of the CaMKII enzyme to calcium and calmodulin is governed by the variable and self-associative domains. This sensitivity level of CaMKII will also modulate the different states of activation for the enzyme. Initially, the enzyme is activated; however, autophosphorylation does not occur because there is not enough calcium or calmodulin present to bind to neighboring subunits. As greater amounts of calcium and calmodulin accumulate, autophosphorylation occurs leading to persistent activation of the CaMKII enzyme for a short period of time. However, the Threonine 286 residue eventually becomes dephosphorylated, leading to inactivation of CaMKII.
=== Reliability === Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile. Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly due to the manufacturing tolerances in their forward voltage. Running two or more strings from a single current source may result in LED failure as the devices warm up. If forward voltage binning is not possible, a circuit is required to ensure even distribution of current between parallel strands. Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs. Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life for white LEDs, though time to complete failure may be shorter or longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 25,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product. Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) that require a long time to warm up to full output and to cool down before they can be lighted again if they are being restarted.
=== Signalling === Once cleaved, PAR1 can activate G-proteins that bind to several locations on its intracellular loops. For example, PAR1 in conjunction with PAR4 can couple to and activate G-protein G12/13 which in turn activates Rho and Rho kinase. This pathway leads to the quick alteration of platelet shape due to actin contractions that lead to platelet mobility, as well as the release of granules which are both necessary for platelet aggregation. Coupling can also occur with Gq, leading to phospholipase C-β activation; this pathway results in the stimulation of protein kinase C (PKC) which impacts platelet activation. Additionally, both PAR1 and PAR4 can couple to G-protein q which stimulates intracellular movement for Calcium ions that serve as second messengers for platelet activation. This also activates protein kinase C which stimulates platelet aggregation and therefore blood coagulation further down the pathway.
They tend to be reactive towards metals, except for the noble gases, which are inert towards most substances. They are brittle when solid as their atoms are held tightly in place. They are less dense and conduct electricity poorly, because there are no mobile electrons. Near the borderline, band gaps are small and thus many elements in that region are semiconductors, such as silicon, germanium, and tellurium. Selenium has both a semiconducting grey allotrope and an insulating red allotrope; arsenic has a metallic grey allotrope, a semiconducting black allotrope, and an insulating yellow allotrope (though the last is unstable at ambient conditions). Again there are exceptions; for example, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials, greater than any metal. It is common to designate a class of metalloids straddling the boundary between metals and nonmetals, as elements in that region are intermediate in both physical and chemical properties. However, no consensus exists in the literature for precisely which elements should be so designated. When such a category is used, silicon, germanium, arsenic, and tellurium are almost always included, and boron and antimony usually are; but most sources include other elements as well, without agreement on which extra elements should be added, and some others subtract from this list instead. For example, unlike all the other elements generally considered metalloids or nonmetals, antimony's only stable form has metallic conductivity.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Shallot is also pickled—called shour (شور) in Persian—along with other vegetables to be served as torshi. In Southeast Asian cuisines, such as those of Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Brunei, both shallots and garlic are often used as elementary spices. Raw shallots can also accompany cucumbers when pickled in mild vinegar solution. They are also often chopped finely, then fried until golden brown, resulting in tiny, crispy shallot chips called bawang goreng (fried shallots) in Indonesian, which can be bought ready-made from groceries and supermarkets. Shallots enhance the flavor of many Southeast Asian dishes, such as fried rice variants. They are also often present in noodle and slaw dishes. Crispy shallot chips are also used in southern Chinese cuisine. In Indonesia, shallots are sometimes pickled and added to several traditional foods; the pickles' sourness is thought to increase the appetite. In the southern Philippines, shallot bulbs and leaves are used to make the popular spicy Maranao condiment called palapa, which is used in the dish piaparan. The tubular green leaves of the plant can also be eaten and are very similar to the leaves of spring onions and chives.
== Symptoms and signs == Abdominal obesity, often assessed using the waist-to-hip ratio, is associated with hyperinsulinemia. Direct measurement of serum insulin levels can identify elevated insulin, which may precede the onset of impaired glucose tolerance or hyperglycemia by 10 to 20 years. Consequently, normal fasting blood glucose levels alone do not rule out early-stage hyperinsulinemia. Some patients may experience a variety of symptoms when hypoglycemia is present, including:
== AFL career == Gumbleton's 2007, 2008 and 2009 seasons were all plagued by injury and he played only five AFL games in first three seasons, all of which were in 2007. However, the 2010 season saw much improvement for Gumbleton, having a full pre-season, playing 17 of the first 18 games and being re-signed by Essendon, after showing much improvement. Gumbleton suffered yet another injury in round 18, with broken ribs and a punctured lung, ruling him out for the remainder of the 2010 season. Scott's 2011 season was again plagued by injury and he failed to play any games at AFL level. At the end of 2011 Scott had back surgery to repair a disk. It was hoped the surgery would fix his chronic hamstring issues. In 2012 Scott played his first senior game in nearly two years when he returned against Port Adelaide in round 16, booting three goals. He finished the 2012 season having played six games kicking 11 goals. Despite having long-term offers from rival clubs at the end of 2012 Gumbleton showed his loyalty to Essendon agreeing to a new one-year deal to remain at the club until at least the end of 2013. In October 2013, Gumbleton was recruited by Fremantle, who traded the 55th selection in the 2013 AFL draft to Essendon. After failing to play a senior game in his one season at Fremantle, Gumbleton announced his retirement in September 2014. He returned to Melbourne to play for the Banyule Football Club in the Northern Football League from 2015.
The administration has left financing for eradication projects in the Andes largely unchanged, despite debate over whether such efforts can sharply restrict the supply of cocaine or significantly increase the price in the United States in the long run. American anti-narcotics aid for Peru stands at $71.7 million this year, slightly higher than last year's $70.7 million. American anti-narcotics officials operate from a newly expanded Peruvian police base in Tingo María, overseeing Peruvian teams that fan out to nearby valleys to cut down coca bushes by hand.
== Reactions == Metal carbonyls are important precursors for the synthesis of other organometallic complexes. Common reactions are the substitution of carbon monoxide by other ligands, the oxidation or reduction reactions of the metal center, and reactions at the carbon monoxide ligand.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The main proposal is modulation of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, supported largely by animal experiments. Receptor-level targets have not been firmly established. Most reviews describe the mechanism as only partially characterized.
The compound is registered as a medicine in Russia, so clinical work has concentrated there. Trials elsewhere are few and generally small. This geographic concentration is a recognized limitation in evidence reviews.
Some fraction may reach the central nervous system through olfactory pathways, and this is often cited as the rationale for the nasal route. The size of that fraction in humans is not well quantified. Blood concentrations after nasal dosing are low, which complicates measurement.
Registered medical products are most often 0.1% nasal drops. Research suppliers ship lyophilized powder, usually in milligram quantities, which is dissolved before use. The active peptide is the same in both cases; presentation and excipients differ.